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1.0 INTRODUCTION Schools exist in society for the main purpose of transmitting existing knowledge, culture and traditions of society to their learners. This is necessary in order to ensure the continuity of that society. From time to time, however, members of society are concerned with what the schools are for and what must be taught in the school. Thus, members of the society do come together to take decisions on what schools teach to the learners.
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The totality of the learning experience in schools is what is called “curriculum”. However, because of varying perspectives from which different people are bound to look at the same things, the term “curriculum” has been defined in many different ways by different experts. In this unit, you will be exposed to the basic concepts of curriculum and its nature and importance in schools. Go ahead and enjoy your study. 1.1 Meanings of Curriculum
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The word “curriculum” comes from the Latin word “currere”, which means: i. “to run or to run a course”. That is, a course of study, which contains a body of subject matter approved for teaching by society in schools. However, as said earlier, different experts view “curriculum” from perspectives other than the “course of study” definitions. Here are some of them; ii. Curriculum is a “structured series of
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learning outcomes”. It, therefore, tries to see curriculum as an “input” which results in a certain “output”. Another definition says: Curriculum is “an organized set of formal educational or training intentions”. The emphasis of this view is clearly seen, from the “input” perspectives. In other words, what the school teaches or intends to teach is organized according to some set rules. For example, there is a principle which says that what
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is known should be taught first before proceeding to what is not known. Another example is the principle that what is simple should be taught first before teaching complex material. A pupil must learn first by counting concrete objects such as bottle tops- adding and subtracting them, before extrapolating to abstractions and more complex mathematical problems. iii. Curriculum is a “deliberate, systematic and planned attempt undertaken by the school
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to modify or change the behaviours of the citizens of a particular society”. iv. This view appears to be more elaborate in explaining the term “curriculum” than the others. Although the input-output paradigm is subsumed in this definition it is clear that what the school teaches must be deliberately planned and arranged in a particular way to bring about the desired outcome of changing the citizen’s behaviour. 1.2 Analysis and Summary of the Definitions
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From the foregoing, it is clear that there is a programme which schools must run in order to properly educate the citizens. It is therefore a plan, a statement of purpose with a specification of content and methods, in-built with the capacity for evaluation to know whether the purpose has been achieved or not. This programme which the schools must follow or use has been carefully divided into three namely: i. Programme of studies - the subjects which must
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be taught in schools such as History, Geography, Economics and Physics. ii. Programme of activities - planned and organized out-of-classroom teaching activities which help the learners to neither grow nor mature but are not formal as in classroom teaching setting. Examples include getting students to join various clubs and societies in the schools (e.g. Sports, Historical Clubs, Debating Clubs, Dramatic Society etc)Through these, students
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learn through the process of socialization, because it is less formally structured. iii. Programme of Guidance - a programme of care for the well-being of the learner. In this programme, professionally - trained helpers are employed to assist the learners in achieving the self-understanding and self-direction necessary for adjustment to school, home and the larger environment. In specific terms, the counsellors assist learners in three major areas: educational,
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vocational and persona-social. In educational areas, counsellors help learners to make decisions on the right choice of vocational area, counsellors assist learners to make decisions on the right choice of vocation or careers. In the persona-social area, counsellors assist learners in handling emotional and psychological problems which may affect their behaviours adversely or prevent them from learning in school. In summary, the term “curriculum” may
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be said to be a total package of what schools do to make learners become what society expects them to become, namely good citizens, who are not only able to understand or learn certain school subjects but fully integrated individuals that are able to fit into society and contribute their own quota as well, to the progress of that society. 1.3 Distinction between “Curriculum” and Other Related Terminologies 1.3.1 Curriculum and Syllabus
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Most often people tend to equate the word “syllabus” with Curriculum”. This should not be so. As can be understood from explanations already given, the curriculum is wider in scope than “syllabus”. A syllabus is part of a curriculum but it is not the Curriculum. The syllabus is the content of the school subjects offered in the school, and it is a sub-set of the curriculum. Such subjects include Mathematics, English Language, Biology and so on. A syllabus
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normally contains what students will learn in the various school subjects in a year or for a longer period of schooling leading to certification. It is a long-term plan of work for students. It is normally prepared for the classroom teachers by a body such as the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) or the Examination Council of Zambia (ECZ). At the university level, the Higher Education Authority (HEA) reviews and approves syllabi (plural of syllabus) from all
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Zambian universities designed by themselves. 1.3.2 Curriculum and Scheme of Work Again, the curriculum of a school is not the scheme of work. As the name implies, a scheme of work is a breakdown of the contents of what students are expected to learn in a given period. In other words, a scheme of work is the systematic arrangement of subject matter and activities within a given time period, such as a term or a semester. Whatever the learners are expected to
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learn are broken down into instructional units (which include activities) and are normally prepared by the classroom teacher. It is usually a guide in planning what is to be done per week over a term or semester and for the three terms or two semesters in an academic year as the case may be. 1.3.3 Curriculum and Course of Study A course of study is an educational programme leading to the award of a certificate at the end
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of the programme for a particular set of learners. For example, a Secondary Teachers’ Diploma (STD) is a course of study. Another example is a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) programme in English, in a Teacher Education programme. Another example still is the Master of Science Programme (M.Sc.) in Public Health offered in the Faculty of Science at Rusangu University. A course of study therefore refers mainly to a programme of learning that are offered to students - with various course
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contents - at the end of which they are awarded a certificate indicating the type of course of study they had undergone. To understand this better, a friend might ask another what course
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he/she offered at the College or University. The answer could then be any of the following: a B.A. Ed course in Language Arts; an STD course at the College of Education, an M.Sc course in Public Health etc. 1.3.4 Curriculum and Lesson Note A lesson note (or note of lesson; or lesson plan) is a guide for teachers to assist them in the orderly presentation of a lesson to the learners in order to facilitate learning.
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Teachers draw the plan for teaching a particular lesson from the scheme of work. That is, just as the scheme of work is a breakdown of the syllabus so the lesson note is a breakdown of the scheme of work into daily lessons, which are planned by the teacher. In this plan, the teacher explains the step-by-step procedure which he/she would follow in presenting the lesson to the learners.
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It usually contains the activities expected of the students as well as the teachers during the period of the lesson. The lesson note (or note of lesson, or lesson plan) is therefore not “curriculum”. The classroom is the implementation point of the programme of learning, which is just one of the three major components of the curriculum. Thus, the lesson note is an important aspect of curriculum implementation, especially the programme of learning component of the curriculum.
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1.4 Purpose of School Schools are separated institutions by society for the purpose of transmitting the existing body of knowledge, culture and traditions of the people of a given society to their citizens. Schools are important because they produce boys and girls, men and women who are prepared to live and be integrated into society. Schools provide manpower, as well as training in character and the virtues
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which society holds dear. The school is therefore both an agent of stability and change in society. The educated citizenry produced by schools are expected to go back to the society and contribute to its growth and development. However, the school cannot carry out this task without having an adequate and appropriate curriculum designed after due consultation with relevant and appropriate members of society. Hence the saying that the school and society should both be
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involved in the curriculum planning process. 1.5 Nature of Curriculum in School An expert in curriculum called Tyler (1949) was among the first to suggest four fundamental questions which must be answered when talking about the nature of curriculum in schools: These are: 1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain (Objectives); 2. What educational experiences can be provided to attain these purposes? (i.e. the activities, the subject-matter etc);
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3. How can these educational experiences be organized effectively to achieve these purposes? (e.g. Teacher-centered or child-centred learning); 4. How can we determine whether or not the expected objectives have been achieved? (i.e. using tests, performance observations and other forms of evaluation). These four fundamental questions are from the core of the curriculum development process. By its very nature therefore curriculum cannot be said
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to have been presented until objectives, contents evaluation procedures are clearly specified. This will be further elaborated in subsequent units. 1.6 Dimensions of the Definitions of Curriculum Although there very many definitions of curriculum, an interesting thing is that the definitions can be categorised into two major dimensions. These dimensions are Ends and Means, and Existential and Personal. 1.6.1 Ends and Means
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A curriculum ends refer to the Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) which may be expressed as aims, goals and objectives. Some curriculum definitions reflect the ends of the curriculum. When a curriculum is so defined, the subject matter is chosen to reflect the outcomes. Often they are planned experiences for the learners. On the contrary, the definitions instead of emphasising ends may refer to means of achieving the ends. 1.6.2 Existential and Personal
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These are definitions that emphasise either the things being studied (existential) or the students studying (personal). When definitions refer to textbooks, materials of instructions, and content such as concepts, theories and facts they are categorised as ‘Existential’. Others may instead refer to the students’ experiences rather than the things being studied. These are personal experiential definitions of the curriculum. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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Categorise the definitions listed in this unit into the two major dimensions. 1.7 Curriculum Components In section 3.1 above, we reviewed some definitions of curriculum. As part of the review process, it is important that you identify the components or elements of the curriculum. We shall briefly discuss these in this section. There are five widely agreed components or elements of the curriculum. These are: (a) a framework of assumptions about the learner and society;
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(b) aims and objectives; (c) content or subject matter with its selection, scope and sequence; (d) modes of transaction (e.g. methodology and learning environments) and (e) evaluation a. The individual and the society as a framework All curriculum organization begins with assumptions concerning the learner and society. The first guiding principle is to determine the learner’s ability, needs, interest, motivation and potential for learning. The second guiding
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construct is the society’s orientation to nurturing or using the individuals. b. Aims and objectives Aims and objectives are of primary concern in the selection of subject matter for students' experiences. This also guides the teacher’s directed efforts. We shall discuss aims and objectives in more detail in succeeding units. c. Form of subject matter The subject matter is selected, organized and packaged for use by teachers and learners. The form of subject matter and its
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packaging come in many shapes. The most common is the textbook. Guided by knowledge of learners’ abilities and society’s requirements, subject matters are selected and translated through textbooks, curriculum guides, syllabi, and other directives to teachers and learners. d. Modes of transactions These are recommended teacher methodologies to inculcate subject matter. e. Evaluation This provides the individual with information on performance to guide the learner to the next steps
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in the sequence of the subject matter. 1.8 Importance of Curriculum in Schools It is clear from what has been written so far as you can see, that curriculum is the very heart of the school system. There can be no school if there is no curriculum. The curriculum is the reason for the existence of the school. Schools develop their own curriculum, sometimes, from the existing planned curriculum, in order to meet their own particular needs. For example,
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in school where truancy is very common, the authorities of the school (which includes the Parents/Teachers Association) may design a package to attract students to school so as to stem the tide of truancy. As the plan used by the school to implement its educational programmes, curriculum is the very vital software without which building and other facilities, (as well as teachers too) will have nothing to do in the school. Self-Assessment Questions
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1. Explain the term “learning experiences”. 2. What is the purpose of the school? 3. Make a clear distinction in your own words between curriculum and a. Syllabus b. Scheme of work c. The course of study d. Lesson note 4. Would you agree or disagree that any one of the three programmes that make up the term “curriculum” can stand as “the curriculum” of a school? Give reasons for your answer. 1.9 Types of Curricula There are so many types of curricula.
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Understanding the different types of curricula is important to understanding the theories and models of curriculum. We shall discuss some of the many types of curricula in this unit. Classification of types of curricula differs depending on the writer. We will try to learn of the different types which will include overt, explicit or written curriculum; the hidden or covert curriculum; curriculum-in-use; received curriculum;
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formal and informal curriculum and centralised and decentralised curriculum. 1.9.1 Formal and Informal Curriculum The informal curriculum is also described as a societal curriculum. Cortes (1981) defines this type of curriculum as the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, church organisations, occupations, mass media and other socialising forces that “educate” all of us throughout our
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lives. Examples of such curricula include those being used by the Sabbath Schools, Technical and Vocational Training Centres, and Continuity-Zambia Organisation (C-Z-O) to ensure the provision of values education in Zambia. Curriculum-in-use: The curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher. The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and concepts
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in the curriculum guides. However, those "formal" elements are frequently not taught. 1.9.2 Overt or Written, Covert or Hidden Curriculum and the Null Curriculum In many schools there are documents such as texts, films and supportive teaching materials. These are simply those documents which are written as part of formal instruction of schooling experiences. They are overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a
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school. They are known as overt, explicit or written curricula. A good example is the Junior Secondary Education Syllabus by the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) or simply, The Zambia Education Curriculum Framework 2023 which is currently being implemented in Zambia. Various stakeholders (administrators, teachers etc) were involved in its writing and development. According to Longstreet and Shane (1993), the "hidden curriculum," refers to the kinds
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of learning children derive from the very nature and organizational design of the schools, as well as from the behaviours and attitudes of teachers and administrators. There are several things that learners pick up in schools which are not planned or overt, for example, students learning to be orderly, decent dressing and so on. The hidden curriculum may include both positive and negative
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messages, depending on the models provided and the perspectives of the learner or the observer. According to Eisner (1985, 1994), the null curriculum is that which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society. From Eisner's perspective, the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools. In every nation, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to
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what is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) or prescribed curriculum. This is because it is physically impossible to teach everything in schools. Consequently, many topics and subject areas are intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. This is related to the hidden curriculum since they are not taught. However, the difference is that the hidden curriculum is not intentionally left out of the written curriculum.
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Concomitant curriculum - This is the curriculum of what is taught, or emphasised at home, or those experiences that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. When this type of curriculum is received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, moulded behaviours, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences it relates to the societal curriculum.
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1.9.3 The Electronic Curriculum and Phantom Curriculum Electronic Curriculum: Wilson, (2004) explained this type of curriculum as those lessons learned through searching the internet for information, or through using e-forms of communication. This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on one’s views.
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Phantom curriculum: This is curriculum messages through exposure to any type of media. The content of such curriculum plays a major part in the enculturation of learners into the predominant meta-culture, or acculturating learners into narrower or generational subcultures. You can imagine the lot that African youths learn nowadays through the media. Consider the lessons from ‘Africa Magic,’ ‘Ultimate Search’ and the like. You will recall
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the impact of these on the lifestyle of many (especially the youths) in Zambia and Africa.
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