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0:00
[DR. SHELBY MILLER] Hey guys. Welcome to Chapter 4, where we are going to discuss morphology. In order to jump start this lecture today, I just want you, for yourself, to think of a couple of English words and have those in the back of your mind as we progress through the lecture. This is nothing you have to turn in. This is really just for you to be thinking about what we're going to be discussing in today's lecture. So, I have on the board, or on the screen here, some prompts
0:24
of maybe types of English words you can think of if you can't think of any. And then throughout today's lecture, I just want you to keep those words in the back of your mind and think, 'Where do these words fit in?' So go ahead and pause the screen if you need to, to think of a couple of words. But I'm going to go ahead and jump right in. So,hit Play when you're ready. What is morphology? We've gone through socio-linguistics at this point. We've gone through phonology and orthography.
0:50
What is morphology? How do we keep adding so much to this linguistic study? What are we talking about? Well, in phonology, we talked about sound. In orthography, we talked about writing.
1:02
Those are both relatively small, microscopic ways to look at language. And so,in this class, we're kind of slowly zooming out. Morphology is another step zoomed out from orthography. And now we're going to be looking at the structure of words. We're no longer just talking about sound and what the smallest units of sound. We're longer talking of which are which are phonemes. We're no longer talking about graphemes, which are the smallest units of writing.
1:31
We're now going to be talking about words. And a word we're going to get to in another lecture is morphemes, which has to do with the smallest units of meaning in a word. how do we start developing meaning? And that's what we're going to do with morphology. We have quite a few
1:48
facets of morphology to cover. And today is one where we're going to talk about how words are formed. So, when we talk about morphology, we're not only talking about how words are formed.
1:59
We're going to then go into how words relate to other words in the same language. This lecture, I'm pretty much going to read a slide and keep moving. Because the terms, the concepts in this particular lecture right now on word formation, are not complicated. They're actually relatively simple. I'm going to present a term to you, tell you what it means, give you some examples, then I'm going to keep moving. You're going to find it relatively easy.
2:23
You might find a lot of the vocabulary to be new. That's because it's in your textbook, and you can come back to this presentation if you need to recap those terms as well. Let's get started. How do we make words? And with this lecture, we're going to specifically be talking about English. But keep in mind these concepts apply to other languages as well. We're going to use English, the English language, as our example. And when it comes to English,
2:47
these are kind of in a particular order for a reason. Well, that's not true. Let's talk about it this way. Derivations, which is the last one we're going to look at today, is the number one way, the number one word formation process in how we create new words in English. We're going to look at that last because the next several lectures pretty much spend time focusing just on that one. The other ones, though, are also ways that we create new words in English.
3:14
If you go down that list, and you see the word 'borrowed,' this term might already be familiar to you because when we've discussed the history of the English language, we found out that a lot of the English language has been borrowed from other languages.
3:27
Something that's not on this list, which we'll discuss
3:31
a little more, are native words. And these are words that have existed since we were that old English, middle English language. Words that have been around for a long time. And we saw a little bit of that history in past lectures. But here, right here, is how we basically get any new words in English right here, right now. And compounding, blending, and clipping, which are the three I'm going to start with,
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are -- some of the main ways. So, derivations is the biggest way we do it. Compounding, blending, and clipping are the next three big ways. And then we use a lot of these other ones below as well.
4:05
So,you don't need to know all that information necessarily, but there's a reason why we're going in this order. Let's go ahead and kick it off with compounding and just get it going. Compounding is a super easy concept. It’s when we take two English words, and we put them together. And you can see examples right here on this screen of compound words you've used before. I have a list on the right that says recent compounds. And by recent, I mean they’re under
4:28
probably 40 or 50 years old. And for the English language, that's pretty recent because the language is, (coughs)
4:36
excuse me, a hundreds and hundreds of years old.
4:40
But you're probably noticing that the ones that are, I'm saying are recent, that are newer on the right, have a hyphen in them, whereas the ones on the left do not. And there’s actually a reason for that. When we create new compound words in English, we actually start it by hyphenating it. Whenever you see a hyphenated word in English,
5:00
a hyphenated compound word in English, that’s probably a clue to the fact that it’s actually a relatively new term.
5:08
And we've done this over history. So think about the term 'campground'. That's a compound word. In the '40s, when it was a new term, it was camp-ground. And then more it became regularized.
5:24
Even though it’s 9:30 p.m., (Laughs). we took out the hyphen. And there’s a reason we do that. And I use this as my reason for everything. As speakers of a language, we are all about efficiency. We're gonna drop unnecessary things the more, because we want to be more efficient. The hyphen disappears over time. A more recent example of compounding is electronic mail. That's what it was in the '90s. In the early 2000's we called it e-mail.
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And then, in 2010, around that time, we dropped the hyphen. It’s still called e-mail, but we dropped the hyphen from it.
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The interesting thing about compounding is that when you look at each word individually, it doesn't mean the same thing as the collected compound word. Think about, on the prior screen, we saw the word sunflower. The first word 'sun' means something in the sky. We know what we’re talking about there. Flower means a pretty plant. Individually, those words don't make you think of what we call a sunflower.
6:22
It’s when those words are compounded together that it creates an alternative meaning. And you think specifically of a big yellow flower. We can think of that with the word high chair as well. I can have a chair, and I can have a chair that is high. Maybe a chair that sits high off the ground. But when I say high chair, you no longer think of a bar stool. You’re thinking of something specifically a baby can sit in.
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And so that's what's cool about compounding. Is you put these words together, and they create their own meaning that's distinct from the individual words they're made of. Blending is like compounding, except we’re still taking two words, but we’re taking little bits of each of those words and putting them together. Here's some common blends that you're familiar with. Again, different than compounding,
7:07
because we're not taking the two full words. We’re clipping it a little bit, and then we’re blending those two clips together. And you can see some examples here you're probably familiar with. Clipping. So that's our third one. Remember, these were three of the biggest ways to create new words. This is when we cut off part of a word. And specifically, we’re not randomly cutting off a random part. The rule with clipping
7:28
that we're all kind of innately following is that you clip off a few syllables. We’re not randomly clipping in the middle of a syllable, we’re clipping a full syllable off. And you’re all familiar with syllables because we've looked at them in a couple of lectures. But we get from examination, we get exam.
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We take off mination. We’re more efficient. One reason we clip is because we want to be efficient. And this is efficient to cut. If we can still communicate the same meaning by taking off several syllables, we're going to climb down. There's some examples of clipping. Now, some words we've clipped for so long and they've existed as clipped words in our language for so long that we often forget they're clipped. For example, with pop music. I listened to pop. Why?
8:15
I had no idea for the longest time that that was a clipping of the word popular. I actually thought it was a little weird to call something pop music, like soda pop. But that's not where the word came from. It was a clipping of the word popular. That's happened a lot with clipped words. We're so familiarized with its clipped version, we don't think of it as a clipping anymore. Some clippings exist. The concept of clipping kind of exists in writing as well. We have the word 'because,'
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and I can clip that orally by just saying 'cause.' But in writing, I can clip 'cause' even further. I can take it from C-A-U-S-E down to C-U-Z. There's an example of how clipping can exist distinctly in writing as well.
9:01
Abbreviations. I had a student ask me once about this. I put this slide in. Abbreviating is a little different than clipping.
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Remember, the rule with clipping is that we're taking off syllables.
9:13
Abbreviating is different because a lot of abbreviation really only exists in the written format. Let's look at a couple examples. I can abbreviate April in writing by abbreviating it to A-P-R, If I'm going to read A-P-R, I'm still going to pronounce it as April. The abbreviation doesn't really clip the word.
9:35
Because it doesn't clip the word, because when I read A-P-R, I'm still going to read it as April. The same way, when you read D-R Shelby Miller.
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You don't abbreviate the word doctor, you say Dr. Shelby Miller.
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These are some examples of abbreviation, which is primarily in a written format. But it's a little more complicated because nothing's straightforward. Thinking about the word crazy. I can say she's crazy, or I can say she's cray cray. If you look up the word crazy or cray cray or cray, they say it's an abbreviation of the word crazy. But, as a linguist, I'm going to tell you that it's actually a clipping, Because the rule with clipping is we break off syllables.
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We went from crazy to cray, cray. Crazy to cray, and then we said cray cray. So sometimes, when you look stuff up online, you're going to get different answers. So, I'm going to tell you that cray cray saying is more likely a better example of clipping than abbreviation. But sometimes, when you look online, it will tell you that it's an abbreviation.
10:42
Eponyming. Let's move into another way that we create words in English. Eponyming is when we create a word from somebody's name or from the name of an animal or a place. And on the screen here are two great examples. The word jumbo, if I asked you what that meant, you would likely tell me that that means huge. I can ride a jumbo jet, or I can order jumbo fries or a jumbo drink. And you know that I'm ordering something large.
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This word actually came from the name of an elephant that was on record as being a really gigantic elephant. And they had named this elephant Jumbo,not because it meant large,but because that was just the name they gave it. But over time, people began to associate the word 'jumbo' with meaning big. So this word came into the English lexicon and started being a synonym for the meaning big because of this elephant.
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So this is a great example of eponyming. We see that with the word 'sandwich' as well, because people think, Where did the word 'sandwich' come from? It has nothing to do with sand or witches. And you're absolutely right. It has nothing to do with either of those. The guy who invented it, his title, John Montagu, he was the fourth Earl of Sandwich. Sandwich was his title. They named this meal after him. And that's another example of eponym.
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There's a lot of eponym in our language. If I say you're a Romeo, what do I mean by that? You're smooth. You're maybe handsome. You're romantic. If I say,you're such a Scrooge, what do I mean by that? Well, you're awful, probably. (Laughs). If I say, that was so Oprah of you, or I'm going all Oprah, that means I'm probably giving something away. These are great examples of how we can use names in our language. How we take a name and assign meaning to it.
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And that's how we get some eponym. Now, the funny thing is that in any of these things, if I give you a word in English and I say, hey, where do you think this word came from? How did we create this word? Well, a regular person doesn't know. They make up their own reason for where they think the word came from. And the word "hamburger" is a great example of that. If I ask a general person, 'Where do you think the word 'hamburger' came from?"
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Most of us genuinely think, because we use deduction. And we think, ham-burger. It must have something to do with ham. Well, I know they don't put ham inside a hamburger, but maybe whoever invented it years ago did. We just don't use it anymore. We create this whole backstory for where these words come from, and they're wrong. And we call those folk linguistics. It's just a misconception, or basically something made up about the history of English.
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In this case,morphology was word formation. Believe it or not, "hamburger" is actually another example of eponyming. The people, the guy, whoever invented it, was from a place named Hamburg, Germany. And so,he invented this meal and they named it after the people in this town. If you were from Hamburg, then you were a "hamburger." And so, that's where that word came from. Same with the word "crawfish" or "crayfish."
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Some people look at that and go, " It must have something to do with being a fish"
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Because the word's "fish" there. Now,if you've ever had one, you know it's nothing like fish. It's more like a hermit crab.
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And we don't know what the "craw" or "cray" means, but we think fish,it's got to be a fish. And that's not true at all. That's folk linguistics again. The "cray" or the "craw" is actually remnants of middle English. Remember,years and years ago, we had middle English. And it's an old way of saying crevice. We got the word "crevice" from the word "craw." That's how it's changed over time. So, "crevice," where do you find crawfish? You find them in the crevice. In the rocks.
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Let's move on to acronyming. Everyone uses acronyming, especially if you're a texter. There are two types of acronyming, though. We're just going to quickly dive into. The first is word acronyms. Acronyming, in general,is when you take a phrase and you take the first initial letter of each word, and you make it into its own little acronyms. But there are two types. There's word acronyms and there's spelling acronyms. A word acronym is when you pronounce the final product as a word.
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Listen to me on these. OSHA, NASA, SWAT, NASDAQ.
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We call these word acronyms because I am not saying O-S-H-A, N-A-S-A, S-W-A-T. I'm actually taking those acronyms and I'm pronouncing it as a word. I'm putting phonemes to those letters. I'm applying some of my phono-grapho intelligence to these acronyms. I've got OSHA, NASA. And this is a little different than a spelling acronym, where we actually -- Another word for a spelling acronym is called initialism, but we're just going to call it acronyming,
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where we actually spell out the acronym. I don't say UNT-D, I say U-N-T-D. I don't say F-B-I-N-T-D, I say F-B-I. You can hear the difference there. And there's always some anomalies in any language. We have some where they're both spelling and they're a word acronym. Like, I can say,get that to me, A-S-A-P, or I can say, "Get that to me, ASAP. And so ASAP is the word acronym part of that. And A-S-A-P is the spelling acronym, but it's still the same term.
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And we also have acronyms like AAA. A-A-A, we call AAA.
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It's just a different type of acronyming, but there's lots of these different anomalies sometimes in English. The reality is it's not always split down the middle and language is always changing. And I use this -- if any of these word formation processes, any word that we use now, it's going to keep changing. And that's kind of a pattern we're discussing in this class. But I have this slide in here specifically because of a great student I had last semester
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point something out to me. At that time, I had a quiz question that said, "What is the word formation process --," I said, "what type of acronym is this?" And I'm going to read it the way I would say it, F-A-Q. I wanted to know, is it a spelling acronym or a word acronym? And I had in there that it was a spelling acronym, F-A-Q,
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because we say it with the letters. However, this student went online to research it because that's what you're going to do with your next quiz. I want you to go online and research some stuff. And she went to the dictionary and she pointed out something really interesting to me, which is that the dictionary has it listed both ways. It has it as the spelling acronym and the word acronym. I thought that was really interesting because I would say in general, most of society says F-A-Q,
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frequently asked questions. Do you have any F-A-Qs? But what she found is that there must be a societal movement of now pronouncing it as a word acronym that's pronouncing it FAQ.
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Or maybe, FAQs, frequently asked questions. And I didn't know that. If you actually look close at the screenshot of the dictionary, on the left-hand side, you can see basically the dictionary's phonetic alphabet of pronouncing the word as FAQ. And if you were to click on that, you can't click on it from this PowerPoint. But if you go to the dictionary and click on the microphone, it would pronounce it as FAQ, FAQ.
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However, to the right of that little speaker icon, you can see its other pronunciation as F-A-Q.
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So here the dictionary's pointing out that society is now using either or. And if you remember us discussing dictionaries back in socio-linguistics, these they're typically descriptive. They're typically telling you how society uses things. I thought that was really interesting.
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We have some acronyming that only exist in writing. L-O-L, laugh out loud. T-L-D-R, too long, didn't read. L-O-L, I've heard some people say that out loud now. That one's getting a little fuzzy. But for the most part, these are all examples of acronyming that only exist in writing. They don't have a spelling or a word acronyming form because we don't say them. They're only ever typed.
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By the way, when it comes to the quiz, if I ask you, for example, is this word an example of acronyming?
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I might not capitalize everything. Caps lock is not a rule with acronyming. Things can be lowercase as well, and all of this frequent texters know that. I bring that up because I had a student overthink the quiz once and marked stuff wrong because maybe I didn't capitalize the acronym, but it doesn't matter. Caps lock is not an important rule with acronyming.
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Another great way that we create words in English is just inventing them. We call these coinages or we call them inventions. And it's really hard. If any of you even tried to do that at the beginning of this lecture, when I asked you that prompt. One of the prompts was to create a word, you probably quickly moved past it. I've only ever had one student successfully do it in the last couple of semesters because it's really hard to create a word and to not base it on an already
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existing English word because it's not invention. But here are some examples of invented words in English: Googel, Kleenex, Frisbee, and they typically are brand names. Now, you're probably realizing that Google is spelt wrong, or is it? Let's talk about that real quick. Another way that words are created in English are from mishearers.
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literally, people mishearing something, or mishearing, or misreading something. Here's a great example. The first one is that there's the disease Alzheimer's disease, and you've probably also heard people call it old timers' disease. Well, old timers' disease sounds a little mean. It actually didn't come about from a mean intention. It was a mishear of Alzheimer's disease. People literally misheard it as if someone was saying old timers' disease.
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That is how that phrase entered the English language. It wasn't from ignorance or being mean or dark. It was literally a mishear of the word Alzheimer's. Another great example is Google.
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Here's how this works. The word 'Googel,' G-O-O-G-E-L, Not the way you type it online, is actually a math term and it means something like an infinite number of results. So there was a woman who actually invented the concept years ago, and she had her eight-year-old grandson, I think it was, and named it. She created this math concept and she needed to create a name for it. And so her eight-year-old grandson named it Googel, Isn't that cute? That's where that word came from.
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And he, this grandson, spelled it as G-O-O-G-E-L, I think this is in the '80's when that happened.
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I digress. Needless to say. Years later, Google, the people who were creating Google. The literal inventors of Google.com were creating this website and they needed to name it. And they had heard, heard, about this math term called googel. And what it meant, an infinite number of results. Think about what we Google. When we Google things, we get an infinite number of results. And they thought, let's name it that. Let's name it Google.com.
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Here's the thing. They had never seen the word in writing. They did not know it was spelled G-O-O-G-E-L. Then they bought their domain, they spelled it wrong and spelled it as G-O-O-G-L-E. It's kind of another example of a mishear.
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From hearing the word Google only and not knowing how it was spelled,they actually changed the spelling of it. Because I would say most of you didn't know its original spelling was E-L. I wanted to do a quick callback though with that example. In orthography, when we were looking at digraphs, trigraphs, graphemes, all that stuff, I had a specific example of the L-E. I used the word Apple, Kindle, What are the words? Mingle. Google is another one.
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And we talked about the L-E spelling pattern. And how when we would translate that in IPA, it would be a schwa and then an L-O. O-O.
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I thought it was super interesting that when the people that invented Google heard the word 'Google,' Google, they were applying their phonographic knowledge to that sound to create a spelling pattern. And so, if you remember in orthography, I asked you, (coughs) 'How do we pronounce this L-E at the end of these words?' And you all, I'm guessing, agreed with me that it's O-O-O. You knew when you looked at all those words, it ended with O-O-O. With a word like Google,
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these same people were applying the same phonographic skills that you have to that word, which is why they spelled it with an L-E. I thought it was super interesting and a super good tie back to orthography when we talked about,
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what we do with orthography is we bridge the gap between sound and spelling patterns, and that we get accustomed to those relationships, and that's how we develop our literacy. It's a great example with this word, with Google, with the misspell L-E. Let's keep moving. Borrowed words. Nothing new for you. These are words that we borrowed from other languages. We not only borrowed it, but we kept basically the pronunciation and basically kept the spelling. Algebra is a great word.
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Algebra. That's an Arabic word. We didn't spell it necessarily different for English. We maybe applied our English sound system to it, but we pronounce it basically the way it would be pronounced in Arabic.
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We saw this in other slides with the word 'depot' from French. Home Depot, I always think of, but 'depot.' it ends in a T, but we don't pronounce it because we borrowed that word from French and then we kept the spelling and we kept the pronunciation. Those are borrowed words. When we took a word from the language and we put it in ours.. We looked at a lot of Spanish examples. Salsa. Salsa. We borrowed that from Spanish.
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We kept the spelling and the pronunciation and we put it in our language. This is a little different than calquing. Calquing is maybe when we hear a phrase in another language and we translate that phrase to something similar in our language. We basically took -- We translated the phrase from the other language and took it into ours. One of my favorite ones... Let's see if it's on here.
25:33
I don't see it on here. Bummer.
25:37
Yeah, there it is right there. Long time,no see. Think about that grammatically. Just think about 'long time, no see,' 'long time, no see.' Grammatically, if you think about it, it's really not the same syntactical pattern as most English sentences. It has been a long time since I have seen you. I would never say 'no see you.' I no see you there.
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So, what's interesting though, is that this is a great example of calquing. In Chinese, there is a phrase there that basically is the equivalent of saying 'long time, no see.' And if you think about that phrase, say it out loud, 'long time, no see,' it sounds kind of like remnants of a different syntax structure. Specifically, what's going to be Chinese, maybe Mandarin specifically. Those are examples of that's examples of calquing,
26:24
taking a phrase from the language, translating it with our own words into our own language, but keeping the pragmatic, basically the semantic meaning. What it means in our language.
26:34
We're on our last one. Here we go. Derivations. This is the big one. This is the number 1 way that we create and form new words in the English language. Now, here's how we do it. We basically take existing words, and we create new words with it. It's actually not hard, but it's about to show you what I mean by that. When we take an existing word and we create a new word for it, this changes their meaning. Which it changes the meaning of the word
27:06
as in the definition, and it changes their word category.
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If you're not familiar with what I mean by word category, I mean, it changes their parts of speech. This is a term you'll get more familiar with as we move through morphology and into syntax. Meaning it might change it from a noun to a verb, or a verb to a noun, or a noun to an adjective. There's all those parts of speech. Some of you probably shivered when I said those terms because you remember them from second grade and you hated it.
27:34
We're going to be looking at some of that in syntax again. But this is what happens when we do the derivational process, when we take an existing word and we create a new word. So let's look a little into that. one way we do this is through affixation.
27:48
And we add a prefix or suffix. If you don't know those terms right now, that's Because one of your upcoming lectures is specifically on affixation. I'm going to explain all of it to you. But it's essentially when we add something to the word. And I'll give you two quick examples. We can say drive and we can say driver. Drive means, it could be a verb. I'm driving somewhere. And the person who does the driving is the driver. I add the "er," and all of a sudden I have made that a noun.
28:20
The driver, person, place, or thing, that's a noun. Does the driving, drive, which is a verb. It's a great example of how, when I add a small unit, an affix, to a word, I can change the meaning and I can change the part of speech. I changed it from a verb,drive, to a noun, driver. We're going to look at those closer in upcoming lectures. That's why I saved this one for last because we're going to dive into affixation closer.
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Now it doesn't always have to change the part of speech. It doesn't always have to change it from a noun to a verb or whatever. It can stay the same part of speech as with the second example, believable and unbelievable.
29:00
That is believable. That is unbelievable. These are adjectives. And they are still adjectives, whether I say believable or unbelievable. But it does change the meaning. Believable and unbelievable mean completely different things. Remember when we create new words from existing words, we can change the part of speech and/or just change the meaning. We changed the definition of believable when we added the affix "un" in front of it.
29:28
And you get some more examples. We have the verb do, but when I add "able" to it and make doable, it's now an adjective. I can say undoable, it's still an adjective. And if you're all overwhelmed, it's okay. We have future lectures dedicated to your understanding of this material.
29:44
Another way that we create new words through this derivational process is called conversion. This one's super interesting to me. I am guessing if any of you, at the beginning of this lecture, when I said, think of some English words, if any of you did slang. Some of you with your slang words would probably find that they're actually conversions. And I'm going to give an example of a curse word for that. Let's use the word "damn." It can be used as a curse word.
30:12
And let me talk about that again in a second and why it fits in conversion. And a lot of slang does. So, this is when we change the meaning of a word. The word stays the same. We spell it the same. It's pronounced the same, but it now has a whole second definition. Think about this example. I can drive a vehicle, If I'm going to drive a vehicle, you know that I have my hands on the wheel, I'm on a road. All this meaning comes with the word "drive."
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But if I drive a golf ball, do you think of the same? Does "drive" mean the same thing? It doesn't. It's the same word. It literally is the same word, but it has a different definition now. The meaning is different depending on how I use the word. When I say it's the same word, what I mean is if you go to the dictionary and you look up the word 'drive,' it's in there. It's pronounced the same, but it's going to have more than one definition because
31:05
there are more than one way. There's more than one way to use this word. The meaning can change. Now,we can also change the word category. I can say everyday I run. "Run" is a verb, Or I could say, "They went for a run." "They went for an ice cream." "They went for a jog." "They went for a drive." In that case, "drive" is a noun. So, that's all syntax, and we'll get there. But notice a couple of things here. We didn't change the pronunciation.
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We didn't change or add anything to the word. We converted the word, meaning we added another meaning to it. Let's come back to that curse word, 'damn.'
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Damn, if you think about that word, what's another meaning for it?
31:49
Well, so there's, "We can build a dam to keep water out," right?
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I can also use "damn" to mean "dang it." or another curse word. "Dang" is not a curse word. I don't want to get too dark on here. I can say a handful of them if you want. But that would be another example of conversion because, at some point, "damn" probably only had the one meaning, But now it's got another meaning where it can mean maybe a term that no one's allowed to say in front of their parents. I don't know. That's a good example of conversion.
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Now, what I found in prior classes is that most students who selected slang and gave me cool slang options is that most of them w ere conversion. They are words that actually have different meanings.
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Could have different meanings if you Google it or look up the dictionary. But that they have this side slang cultural bound meaning too.
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That pretty much ends this lecture. I just want to end with, "I want you to think about your words." What were the words you picked out at the beginning of this lecture? Where did they fit in? How were they formed? What was the word formation process for each of those words? And I'd like you to go back through those slides if you have the time or the energy and think about where your word was formed from.
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And I encourage you to use a dictionary and Google to help look up the history of that word, to give you a better idea. This will give you some practice before you start your quiz, which is over word formation. And for that quiz, I do encourage you to use your resources. Come back to these slides, use Google, and search up the etymology of a word to answer some of those questions. If you came up with a word, and you can't figure out
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what its word formation process was, shoot it my way. I'm happy to look into it and research it with you. All right. That ends our lecture on word formation. I'll see you guys soon.
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