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0:14
Hello and welcome back to this lecture series on postcolonial literature. Now, we had ended our previous lecture by discussing Rabindranath Tagore’s and Frantz Fanon’s criticism of the idea, though we had also discussed how nation-state had become the norm by the second half of the 20th century in the parts of the world which was once colonised by the European powers. Which means that independence movements in places like Africa for instance, or in the
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Indian subcontinent, almost automatically led to the formation of nation-state. Now, but in the conclusion I had suggested that the criticism of Tagore and Fanon of nation and nationalism also compels us to look beyond the present political norm of nation-states. Now nation-state is almost a political norm in the world. Right. But as we have seen that there are very powerful critics of this idea of nation-state and nationalism
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and these critics like Tagore and Fanon compel us to look beyond the category of nation-state. And we will make this attempt today by exploring the works of Homi Bhabha and see if we can arrive at an alternative understanding of postcolonial human community beyond the category of nation-state. Now our starting point in this exploration today will be the concept of hybridity which plays a central role in Bhabha’s work.
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And after we discuss hybridity, we will then move on to another very important concept in Bhabha which is mimicry. And then finally we will revisit the idea of nation and nationalism. But before we start discussing the writings of Bhabha, let me introduce to you Homi Bhabha in a few words. Bhabha was born in 1949 in the Parsi community of Bombay. And he did his graduation from the University of Bombay before moving to the University of Oxford as a postgraduate student.
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And there he completed his Masters as well as his Doctorate. He started his teaching career in the United Kingdom but then moved on to America. And he is now the Anne F. Rothenberg Chair professor in humanities in the University of Harvard. Now Bhabha is often regarded as part of the “Holy Trinity” in the field of postcolonial studies with the other two figure being Edward Said and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
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We have already discussed Edward Said in our previous Lectures and we will take up Gayatri Spivak in the lectures that follows. But coming back to Bhabha, his most influential work of postcolonial theory is the collection of essays titled The Location of Culture which was originally published in 1994. And though Bhabha has subsequently authored a number of other important works like “The Black Savant and the Dark Princess”, “On Global Memory”, and “Beyond Photography”,
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he is primarily known for The Location of Culture. And in today’s lecture we will be exclusively focusing on this particular collection of essays to understand the theoretical position that Bhabha takes. Now in our earlier discussion on the colonial discourse, we have seen how colonialism is constructed by the Europeans as a civilising mission in which a superior culture of the metropolitan West comes in contact with the “inferior culture” of the colonised periphery.
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This superior/inferior binary indicates that in spite of the colonial contact, the culture and civilisation of the Western coloniser, and of the colonised East were perceived as two distinct and separate entities. And this perception is perhaps most clearly stated in that famous opening line of Rudyard Kipling’s poem “The Ballad of East and West”, I have already quoted this line in one of my earlier lectures but I am going to quote it again now, the line is of course:
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“East is East and West is West, and never the twain shall meet”. And as I said, this line is perhaps the best expression of the notion that in spite of the colonial contact, the Western civilisation and Western culture of the coloniser was distinct and superior to the culture and civilizational values of the colonised East. Now this notion of distinct cultural essences separating the coloniser and the colonised
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also informs the kind of middle class nationalist discourse that we have studied earlier from within the context of India. Indeed the cyclical pattern of fall and recovery, which should be very familiar to you by now, which underlines the nationalist discourse is pivoted on the notion of distinctive and pure cultural identities. As we have seen earlier, the lament of someone like M.K. Gandhi for instance, is that India under the colonial influence has lost its distinctive
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culture and its native inhabitants are busy imitating the culture of the colonisers which is completely alien to them. In the cyclical pattern underlying the Gandhian nationalist discourse therefore, the notion of return and the recovery which is crucial as you will know signifies a reverting back to the civilizational values of a precolonial past which represents an era of cultural purity. Now against this idea of a pure culture which can be distinguished and kept separated from
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another foreign culture and which can be reverted back to, against this Bhabha proposes the idea of cultural hybridity. Now since Bhabha’s concept of hybridity is complex and at the same time it is central to the field of postcolonial studies, let us go through it carefully step by step. Now, in order to understand Bhabha’s theory of cultural hybridity, we need to understand that for Bhabha culture is not a static entity. For him it is not an essence that can be fixed in time and space.
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On the contrary, culture for Bhabha is something which is fluid, something which is perpetually in motion. It is a melting pot of several disparate elements which are regularly being added and which are regularly transforming our cultural identities. So for Bhabha, there is for instance no pure Indianness or Africanness or Britishness that can be grasped, studied, or even returned too. And to understand what I mean here, let us consider for example the famous European anthropologist
9:00
Bronislaw Malinowski who travelled in the early 20th century to the islands of Papua New Guinea to study the natives in their “original” setting. Now Malinowski’s writings on these natives represent them as the possessor of a distinct culture which has remained uncontaminated by any foreign influence. And if we look at this picture of Malinowski sitting with Papuan islanders, it is easy to believe both in the pure uncontaminated nature of their aboriginal culture and the
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distinction separating them from the culture of the white man who is sitting between them. But as we know Bhabha would contend that such a notion of pure uncontaminated culture is a myth. All culture is characterised by a mixedness which Bhabha refers to by the word hybridity. But how can the culture of these “remote” Papuan islanders be contaminated in any way? Well another modern day anthropologist James Clifford, in his essay “Travelling Cultures”,
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takes up this case of Malinowski and he writes that Malinowski's portrayal of the Papuan culture as pure, static, unchanging, and uncontaminated is an illusion. And such illusions about pure uncontaminated cultures are carefully constructed not only by Malinowski but almost by all anthropologists writing about their field studies on dwellers of spaces far removed from the West. And the illusion is created there for instance by stressing on the isolation of the field
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which the anthropologist goes to study. This, for instance, is done by leaving away details about how the Western anthropologist himself or herself travels to that distant location. Because a detailed account of the travel, will immediately destroy the notion of isolation and cultural uncontaminatedness. Why? Because it will connect the anthropological field with the metropolitan centre. Because at the end of the day the Western anthropologist himself or herself is travelling
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and by travelling is actually connecting the metropolitan centre to that distant location which is removed from the West. Now, in other words, if the anthropologist managed to find his or her way to the field of study then that field of study cannot but be connected to other places. And consequently its culture cannot but be influenced by and mixed with other cultures which is very obvious because if someone can travel into a particular space, it means that travel is possible.
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And the moment travel is possible then we conceive that space not as an isolated area but as an area which is interconnected with other places and not only in terms of physical interconnectedness but also in terms of cultural interconnectedness. So the notion of cultural isolation and uncontaminated cultural purity crumbles down here if we think of how the anthropologist has physically travelled to that distant location which is his or her feet.
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But the notion of cultural isolation and cultural purity also crumbles if we remember that the anthropologist is communicating with the inhabitants of his or her field of study in some way or the other. Which means that there is definitely some sort of translation going on. And it is through this process of translation that the anthropologist understands the culture of the native inhabitants about which he or she writes and also vice versa, the natives
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also understand the questions of the anthropologist for instance. So if a culture is all sealed up and isolated then the very possibility of such a translation and communication has to be ruled out. But since such a translation is actually taking place in that field we cannot really regard that cultural landscape as completely isolated and sealed. So as Malinowski’s case suggests, no culture is isolated enough to maintain any sort of
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purity or uncontaminated essence that remains static over time. The alternative to this idea of a static culture that Bhabha suggests is that of culture as an ever unfolding process rather than being characterised by an unchangeable essence, it is characterised by change, it is characterised by flux, and it is characterised by transformation. And most importantly it is underlined by a sense of mixedness or interconnectedness which Bhabha terms hybridity.
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So how does this notion of cultural hybridity impact our understanding of the postcolonial condition? Let us consider the British colonial subjugation of India for instance. Now as Bhabha suggests cultures are dynamic processes characterised by change, flux, and hybridity, then the binary of a superior culture of the British coloniser and an inferior culture of the subjugated Indians immediately break down. To talk about superior Britishness or inferior Indianness would mean talking about static
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unchangeable cultural essences. But as we have seen in our discussion of cultural hybridity, culture is not about such fixed essences but it is about ever changing and ever transforming processes. However, the colonial discourse cannot admit this because the notion of a superior and exalted Britishness is at the core of its justification of colonialism as a civilising mission. The moment it is pointed out that there is no inherent essence of British culture, the
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illusion of the civilising mission disappears and colonialism is revealed just as it is, which is an exploitation of other people’s land and resources through brute force. The justification, cultural justification breaks down if we point out that there is no inherent notion of Britishness or Indianness. So, of course, there cannot be any inherent notion of a superior culture and an inferior culture. Indeed it is interesting to note that much of what the coloniser projected as the superiority
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of their cultural identity, including the superiority that they ascribed to their white skin colour, emerged only gradually during the first decades of the 19th century. In fact during the 18th-century, for instance, the European colonisers had a much more fluid sense of cultural identity. And their approach to India was not marked by a belief in the binary of superior Britishness and inferior Indianness. So, for instance, as Ashis Nandy points out in his book The Intimate Enemy, before the
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1830’s, roughly the 1830’s, we can see most British Colonisers in India living life just like other Indian inhabitants and often marrying Indian wives and even offering pujas to Indian gods and goddesses. So, as you can see, the British colonisers did not bring with them any readymade idea of British superiority or exalted Britishness. Such an illusion of a static cultural essence only developed later to provide a justification for the material exploitation that colonialism involved.
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Consequently the idea of a static Indianness, which is inferior to the Britishness of the coloniser, was also a construction of this same colonial process. Now, here I would like to introduce you to another important concept in Bhabha, which is the concept of mimicry. Now, according to Bhabha, the attempt to stabilise the cultural flux and hybridity that characterise the relationship between the coloniser and the colonised and to structure it in terms
19:00
of a superior Britishness and an inferior Indianness led to a very interesting consequence. As, I have said, the construction of this idea of a superior Britishness or Western culture was crucial in defining colonialism as a civilising mission. And the logic of this civilising mission was to culturally educate the subjugated natives so that they could attain the same level of civilisation as the colonisers. Right.
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So, to repeat civilising mission with justified colonialism was underlined by the logic that because the subjugated Indians are now exposed to the superior culture of the British colonisers they would ultimately learn from the British colonisers and would be elevated to that same level of civilizational superiority. So, in other words, the civilising mission was about making the colonised more and more like the coloniser.
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And this project is most clearly stated in the 1835 Minutes that Macauley wrote, I have already referred to this Minutes in one of my earlier lectures, and here Macauley states in this minutes that the colonial government should spend more on English education in India so as to “create a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.” Now the problem with this effort to create a class of colonised people who are exactly
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like the coloniser is that if the project is ever to succeed then it will erase the assumed cultural gap between the superior coloniser and the inferior colonised, and thereby undermine the entire colonial process, entire colonial rule. So if the colonised subjugated Indians were ever to become exactly like the British then there won’t be any notion of cultural gap, civilizational gap separating the coloniser and the colonised which in turn will destroy the logic that colonialism is required to
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civilise the people of India. Right. So, according to Bhabha, though the coloniser wants the colonised to mimic him, to imitate him, he never really expects the latter to catch up. So the mimic men of the colonial periphery are, therefore, from the perspective of the coloniser, people who forever remain “not quite, not white”, and this is Bhabha’s term - “not quite, not white”. So they are almost like the British but never really like the British. Right.
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And that never really like the British, that caveat is important to maintain the assumed cultural gap between a superior coloniser and an inferior colonised. Because if the gap completely closes down, then of course the justification of the civilising mission ends at that very point. But Bhabha points out that this very idea of a lesser human being, of course the coloniser considered us Indians to be lesser human beings, but this very idea of a lesser human being
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mimicking the superior coloniser also turns the act into a sort of mockery of the superior coloniser’s culture. And in order to understand this mockery, even imagine the situation when a gesture or a clown picks up the manners of a suave gentleman and then repeats it after him in an exaggerated and comic manner. Right. So it is imitation, it is mimicry, but it is not something that can be desired and accepted by the person who is being imitated because it is also a mockery of that person. Right.
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So this possibility of comically undermining the coloniser and his superior civilizational position through a partial repetition, this is what Bhabha refers to as the menace of mimicry. But now let us again return to the notion of cultural hybridity and see how it impacts the concept of nation-state. Now I think it has already become clear to you that a notion of culture as changeable and dynamic process, characterised by hybridity of various elements, is fundamentally inimical
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to the idea of nationalism and to the socio-political construct of nation-state. Why? Because the idea of nation is ultimately defined by a cultural essence which is unique to the people who were resident within its political boundaries and which has remained unchanged for ages and will continue to remain so in the future. Right. So what makes us Indians within this nationalist logic, is our Indianness which is a unchangeable
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cultural essence that we share with everyone living within the political boundary of India and that has remained unchanged, from the glorious days of the past, and has been forwarded to us, which we will forward unchanged to the future generations. So this notion of Indianness as connecting us both with all the people living at the present and with the past generations and the future generations who are to live within this politically defined territory is at the heart of the idea of nation.
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Now, but therefore with nation we are back again to the problematic idea of static cultural essences. But, and because we have extensively dealt with the problem that underlines and undermines this notion of static cultural essences, I will not go into them. But you see Bhabha’s notion of culture therefore is untenable with the idea of nation-state. But more importantly, if we are to do without static cultural essences and think through
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the lens of cultural hybridity, then what kind of social organisation other than the nation-state can we conceive? Well the answer is perhaps best given by Salman Rushdie in his celebrated essay titled “Imaginary Homelands” where he urges us to look at ourselves not as grounded in any particular national culture but as displaced beings who are living the life of an exile. The world around us is seeing an ever-growing number of humans being displaced, humans moving
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from one place to another because of various reasons, because of war, because of natural calamities, because of political persecution, because of economic aspirations and so on and so forth. And so the condition of being in exile is gradually becoming more and more common. But, according to Rushdie, even if we are not physically displaced, all of us are displaced in time from the glorious national past that we might want to go back to.
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So, for Rushdie, every one of us, we are all exiles, we are all displaced, if not spatially then at least temporally. And in most cases, both physically and temporally. So such a mode of thinking, the problem is that, it robs us of our national identities that we have been taught to cherish since childhood. But Rushdie argues that there is a rich compensation. And this compensation lies in the fact, that we then as exiles, and as displaced human
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beings, become an heir to all cultures of the world and we can fashion our own cultural identity by mixing the disparate elements that the world as a whole offer to us. Our cultural identity then becomes a dynamic process of transformation and gives us far more agency to shape ourselves than is offered by the straightjacket of national identity. So with Bhabha’s notion of cultural hybridity we gradually move from nationalism and nation-states to the idea of cosmopolitanism.
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And we will discuss this in more details when we take up the poetry of Derek Walcott in our next lecture. Thank you.
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